Causal Argument: Why Do People Change The Way They Look? Essays

Causal Argument: Why Do People Change The Way They Look? Oscar Wilde once wrote: â€Å"It is only shallow people who judge by appearance. The true mystery of the world is the visible, not the invisible† (qtd in Davis 1). Obviously, humans have all been created differently. That is why we all do not look alike. But now, the idea of having the ideal shape and look is one of the issues everyone has to deal with. Some want to get thinner, while a few do not care about it. Others even change the color of their skin. The desire to be like someone else is getting bigger and bigger for so many reasons that cannot be completely explained. This is due to the fact that people are different and think differently about their own image. But most of the time, they are filled with a desire that Delia, a senior in college expresses well enough in Am I Thin Enough Yet?:â€Å" I always wanted to be the thinnest, the prettiest. ‘Cause I thought, if I look like this, then I am going to have so many boyfriends, and guys are going to be so in love with me, and I will be taken care of for the rest of my life† (qtd in Sharlene 7). According to Richard Rodriguez, there are complexions because the persons, who care for us like a family, are usually the ones who explain us that we have something to be ashamed of (441). On the other side, Bell Hooks thinks that all these complexions take their origin in the historical supremacy of the white race toward the black in particular (446). These are only a few examples of the probable reasons why people decide to change their look. But I personally think that people change the way they look in order to be attractive and appreciated. They believe that this issue can help in their search for happiness. People chan... ...and accept. There is a special inner beauty in each one: the strength to be content of who we are. Everything would be so simple if we just understand that we have been created differently. Thus, trying to look like someone else will be refusing to be who we really are. In this case, what will be our reason for being a member of the Human race? Works cited Hesse-Biber, Sharlene. Am I Thin Enough Yet? Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996 Gordon, Richard A. Anorexia And Bulimia. Oxford: Richard A. Gordon, 1990 Davis, Fred. Fashion, Culture, And Identity. Chicago: University Of Chicago, 1992 Rodriguez, Richard. â€Å"Complexion†. Good Reasons. eds, Lester Faigley, Jack Selzer. Boston: Longman Publishers, 2001. 441-443. Hooks, Bell. â€Å"Straightening Our hair†. Good Reasons. eds, Lester Faigley, Jack Selzer. Boston: Longman Publishers, 2001. 446-452.

Comparative analysis of political participation Essay

The change in political participation is currently a hotly discussed topic. Low turnouts in the 2001 and 2005 UK general elections, along with falling membership of political parties have led political organisations to discover the reasons for this (BBC, 2006). One method is to use comparative analysis. This â€Å"is about comparing aspects of countries’ political systems† (Dobson, 2005, p.140) to try to understand why a phenomenon occurs in one country or time period but not in another. This essay looks at two factors, which evidence suggests affect political participation: gender and socio-economic standing. It examines whether comparative analysis is a useful tool for studying this topic. It concludes that whilst comparative politics is helpful at identifying participation trends, it is too simplistic to provide practical answers and that further studies are required to reveal useful outcomes. Historically, conventional ways for citizens to participate in politics were by voting in elections and joining a political party. The decline in these activities has led some to believe there is political apathy in Britain. However Helena Kennedy (cited by White, 2006, p.4), chair of the Commission which produced the Power to the People report (2006) denies this, saying that despite â€Å"no longer want[ing] to join a party or get involved in formal politics,† people instead take direct action by raising money for charities, joining protest marches, signing petitions and undertaking volunteering work within their communities. The possibility for differing definitions of key outcomes is a disadvantage for comparative analysis. A study that defines participation in terms such as voting or contacting politicians will conclude that political participation has decreased and supports the political apathy theory, whereas, a study such as the Citizen Audit (2001), using â€Å"unorthodox† definitions, such as membership of political organisations (anything from trade unions to community groups) or financially supporting activist organisations, find that participation is still strong. The Citizen Audit â€Å"found that approximately 40 per cent of adults belong to at least one political organisation† (Smith, 2005, p.83)  and â€Å"there is little evidence of widespread apathy† (Smith, 2005, p.84). When trying to create policies to increase political participation, these conflicting results are unhelpful. Following a 2002 European Union directive, which required member states to â€Å"promote equality in relation to sexual orientation, age and religion in addition to race, gender and disability† (Squires, 2005, p.119), European governments began to initiate changes to the way women were represented within parliament. Governments did not necessarily choose the same initiatives and comparative analysis is useful to identify quickly the comparative success of each government’s initiatives. (See table 1, Appendix). Political systems are hugely complex and as Dobson states; â€Å"Each day most of us find ourselves describing, explaining and predicting something. Comparative politics is no more, then, than carrying out these apparently basic human activities in the context of what we are calling ‘political worlds’ † (Dobson, 2005, p.143). Comparing what happens in different countries or different political systems enables the analysis of differences and similarities and thereby, identifying factors that can be applied generally to simplify complex systems. For example Table 1 shows that Nordic countries have significantly higher levels of female participation in comparison to the UK. A policy maker, looking to increase participation by UK women, can then look at why there is such a large disparity between the two countries and whether there is something the UK could learn from Nordic policy. This illustrates another advantage of comparative study; it gives opportunity to expand one’s knowledge of political worlds. For comparison there must be at least two things to compare which must be evidently different. In political comparison, this is often two different countries and even if one is one’s own, the other will not be and â€Å"if we assume that knowledge of others is a prerequisite for finding our way around, and managing, a globalizing world, then comparative politics seems to be of increasing practical importance† (Dobson, 2005, p.143). Expanding one’s knowledge is generally auspicious and simplifying complex  information is usually advantageous although over simplification is a risk. Table 2 shows the same information as table 1 but for the elections that were held closest to the time of the aforementioned EU directive. Figure 1 shows the percentage point difference between both elections. Using this information, that same policy maker may feel that focussing on France’s policies would be of much greater value than that of the Nordic countries as, in only 10 years, France has almost doubled the amount of women who hold parliamentary seats. Comparing and ranking countries can be useful but, as illustrated here, it is only part of a story and great care must be taken when interpreting comparative data. Oversimplification is a distinct risk of comparative analysis. It is possible to mitigate the risk by undertaking more study, producing more data and a more sophisticated and detailed analysis to guide forecasting or policy change. It is important that one considers this potential issue when working with conclusions drawn from comparative analysis. In 2005 the Electoral Commission produced a research report, Social Exclusion and Political Engagement. Its aim was to explore â€Å"why those experiencing social disadvantage tend to also be the most politically excluded in society.† (Electoral Commission, 2005) Looking at the aim of this report highlights an advantage of using comparative politics but also a disadvantage. The advantage is that it allows testing of hypotheses; in this case, those who experience social disadvantage are more likely to be politically excluded. By comparing different circumstances, one can find out what factors affect the political situation in a country, giving an idea as to what particular social/financial or other conditions might give rise to say, reform or revolution in the future. The possibility to predict outcomes is especially important for politicians; â€Å"the possibility of knowing that under certain social conditions, policy X will produce outcome Y† (Dobson, 2005, p.144) all ows them to make informed policy decisions. The disadvantage is that in research, subjectivity and objectivity can sometimes be lost. Baxter, (cited by Dobson, 2005, p.146) points out; â€Å"Research is not a wholly objective activity carried out by detached scientists. It is a social activity powerfully affected by the researcher’s  own motivations and values.† In this case, the researcher(s) has(ve) already taken on the axiom that those with social disadvantages are politically excluded. This does not necessarily mean that conclusions drawn by social scientists are useless it just means that it is important that anyone working with these conclusions is aware that they â€Å"might be ‘contaminated’ by their [comparative scientists’] own motivations and values† (Dobson, 2005, p.154). The report drew together much information on the subject and found that the ‘working class’ (C2DEs) were 21 percentage points less likely to vote than the ‘middle class’ (ABC1), 60% to 41%. It also found â€Å"ABC1s twice as likely as C2DEs to take advantage of the opportunity to contact their elected representatives: two-thirds of those who present their views to their councillors or MPs are ABC1s†¦ Political activism is higher among ABC1s than C2DEs (23% as compared to 7%). Across a range of different activities which could still be defined as ‘political’, there is a correlation with class and income†¦ those in the lowest social class, the poorest in society and the less educated were less likely to be politically active than those who are in a higher social class† (Electoral Commission, 2005, p.9). This gives a lot of interesting information and seems to make it clear that there is a correlation between social class and political participation but then it could be argued that it does not really say anything useful. It illustrates a difference but it does not give any reason for this difference. It does not give any principles that one could draw from the comparisons to enable one to make wider or more generalised conclusions about what would lessen the gap. Anyone using the data runs the risk of putting their own interpretation on the results, as stated by Lewis (cited in Dobson, 2005, p.157) â€Å"the development of the comparatives’ tools seems to involve the interpretation of political reality rather than its simple and problem-free observation†. The other difficulty with this is that people interpret things in different ways and one person’s interpretation of these results might not be another’s. This runs the risk of further confusion rather tha n clarifying issues. To conclude, Dobson asks; â€Å"Whether, despite their peculiarities, we can build  theories for comparing political worlds that will enable us to offer general truths about them. Or are we only ever able to tell stories about them – stories rich in specific detail but devoid of generalizable truths?† (Dobson, 2005, p.140). Comparative analysis is a key tool in identifying trends in participation. It also allows for the testing of hypothesis and for simplification of complicated data, with the possibility of expanding ones knowledge; all notable advantages. However, the disadvantages of contamination and misinterpretation along with the possibility for over simplification reveal crucial limitations, meaning that comparative analysis offers little in the way of definitive predictions about or practical answers which could influence political participation. References BBC, 2006. Political system faces ‘meltdown’. BBC UK Politics. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4753876.stm [Accessed 3 December, 2014]. Electoral Commission, 2005. Available at: http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/63835/Social-exclusion-and-political-engagement.pdf [Accessed 4 December, 2014]. Dobson, A., Story telling and theory building: comparing political worlds. In: Lewis, P ed. 2005. Exploring Political Worlds. Milton Keynes, The Open University Smith, M., Taking part in politics. In: Lewis, P ed. 2005. Exploring Political Worlds. Milton Keynes, The Open University Squires, J., Common citizenship and plural identities: the politics of social difference. In: Lewis, P ed. 2005. Exploring Political Worlds. Milton Keynes, The Open University White, I., Power Inquiry, 2006. Power to the People: the report of Power, an Independent Inquiry into Britain’s Democracy. – Commons Library Standard Note, Power to the People: the report of Power, an Independent Inquiry into Britain’s Democracy. – Commons Library Standard Note. Available at: http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN03948/power-to-the-people-the-report-of-power-an-independent-inquiry-into-britains-democracy [Accessed 3 December, 2014]. Whiteley, P.F., Pattie, C. and Seyd, P., Citizen Audit of Great Britain, 2000-2001 [computer file]. Colchester, Essex: UK Data Archive [distributor], March 2005. SN: 5099, http://dx.doi.org/10.5255/UKDA-SN-5099-1

Heart Is a Lonely Hunter

â€Å"We can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them. † * Albert Einstein The Heart is a Lonely Hunter is a book describing and reflecting upon the problems in the southern United States in the 1930’s. The problems that the author, Carson McCullers, analyzes include alcoholism, labor unions, racial bias, as well as the many problems that economic instability can create. McCullers depicts each problem in a very realistic manner connecting one character with one specific issue. The reader identifies with each character because the social problems the characters face have not gone away.Americans still fight for economic justice and racial equality. Labor unions are still demonized by big corporations. These issues have not gone away. The most overbearing problem- in the 1930's and currently- is the economy. Poverty prevents a main character in this novel, Mick Kelly, from being able to follow her dream. Mick loves music more than an ything in the world: â€Å"The whole world was this symphony, and there was not enough of her to listen†¦ Now that it was over there was only her heart beating like a rabbit and this terrible hurt. (145) Micks feels so passionately about music that she wants to absorb as much as possible. She wants to pursue her dream of music, however, her father does not have a stable income and her mother works very hard for very little. This situation restrains Mick from being able to pursue her dreams by not allowing her to get the adequate instructions and opportunities she needs. The fact the Mick grows up working instead of in an environment where she cannot take music lessons or have the opportunity to follow her dreams, holds her from achieving greatness.The working class not only had to deal with the poverty but also labor unions. Jake Blount is a confused and mentally unstable man who spends his first few weeks in town drunk. Blount has many ideas that he is constantly speaking abo ut: â€Å"words came out of his throat like a cataract† (13). Blount is upset with company’s treatment of the middle class and finds it necessary to tell most everyone in his presence. He believes that America should enact socialist reforms. He is constantly encouraging the revolts of middle class workers to revolt as a reaction to the treatment in the workplace.Another prominent problem that McCullers identifies is institutionalized racism. Dr. Copeland's solution is education and fighting against the inequity: â€Å"In the face of brutality I was prudent. Before injustice I held my peace. I sacrificed the things in hand for the good of the hypothetical whole. I believed in the tongue instead of the fist. As armor against oppression I taught patience and faith in the human soul. I know now how wrong I was. I have been a traitor to myself and my people. All that is rot. Now is the time to act and to act quickly.Fight cunning with cunning and might with might. † (301-302) Dr. Copeland when first dealing with racism would attempt to find peace and submit to the criticism. As time went on in his life he realizes the best option is to fight the injustice. Not only has the problem held true to today's society, but his solution to the problem has become a reality. The problems the characters experienced then are still prevalent today. Poverty is an issue that is one of the focus of society. According to San Jose University the unemployment rate in the Great Depression peaked at 23%.The current unemployment rate, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is at 9. 2%. While these numbers are different, they are still both very high. McCullers approaches this subject in very realistic and connecting method. The perspective in the 1930's, Mick Kelly is one that many kids are facing today. Kids today and 1930's face the problem of wanting to pursue their dreams but instead must work to support their family. This leads to unequal social statuses of children from varying backgrounds. Not only has the poverty remained present, labor unions have as well.Labor unions continue to be demonized by large companies. Since the 1930's labor union membership had been steadily decreasing until the beginning of the current economic recession. The fact that McCullers took the time to analyze such a problem that still exists today show how perceptive she was socially of the world around her. Institutionalized racism is a subject that is no longer prevalent today. The reason that the issue has decreased is because solution of fighting the injustice has taken effect.The current American president, Barack Obama, has dealt with the problems that McCullers describes. He has also taken the solution that McCullers implements through Dr. Copeland and has become the American president. McCullers identifies the possibility of the success and offers the solution. The problems of society are not taken lightly by anyone. McCullers broaches the problems i n a careful yet aggressive manner. She paints a powerful picture of each issue allowing the reader to connect with each problem even sixty years after writing the book.It does not take a genius to realize that the problems that McCullers examines and even offers solutions for come problems that are still prominent in today’s society. The specifics of the economy, labor unions, and racial bias have evolved with the rest of the country, but the fact that the problems are still here is a testament to the social awareness of McCullers while she was writing The Heart is a Lonely Hunter. While McCullers did not actually change these issues, she brought to light struggles that many Americans are facing today.

Homosexuality in School Essay

Of the many emotions a gay man or woman feel, perhaps the most powerful pervasive is fear. The fear of being found out ir real enough, but the worry does not end there. There are the fears of being bullied by your peers, being make fun of and even been killed. For a lesbian and gay teenager, who lack experience and life skills to cope with them, such fears can be overwhelming. Lesbian, gay and bisexual youth face many problems as they realize they are homosexual. And they have to face all this problems at school where many teenagers are judgmental. Many of these teens cant handle the bullying and abused so they turned to homeschooling, running away from home and even suicide. It is unacceptable for young gay men and lesbians to experience levels of prejudice and discrimination that mar their developing years and their school experiences. They, just as much as anyone, should be able to look back warmly on their school days, without rembering bully, name calling, and exclusion. It is common for young people to use words associated with homosexuality as insults or, more generally, as negative adjectives. The prejudice can cause great distress for gay or lesbian pupils, who, gradually becoming aware of their sexuality, come to realize that they are a member of a despised group. This can affect self-stem badly and be a very upsetting time. As they grow older, gay pupils are faced with they very difficult decision of whether to come out and be openly gay at school, or whether to try to hide their sexual identity form their peers. Many homosexual teenager don’t know how to deal with this problems, so they often recurred to drugs in search for some outlet. Many start developing mental problems like depression and anxiety. Because fo the prejudice and the bullying in school that homosexual teens received they don’t get help, they don’t want to tell their teachers as they are afraid they will judge them. By not getting help many of them feel they don’t have another option than ending their life. According to pflagphoenix.org over 30% of all reported teen suicides each year are committed by gay and lesbian youth. Various sexual health issues, specifically HIV, for young gay men are disproportionally affect the lack of information there. They need to receive the information that eill enable them to identify risks, and to take action to protect themselves before they reach an age when they will become sexually active. An education system that falls in this regard is one that puts live at risk. Schools do not always do enough to address these problems, and in some cases, can even add to them. All too often, even if sexual health education does exist, it doesn’t even mention gay people. According to statistics by yotuhprideri.org a website made to inform about the problems that young homosexual faced. According to them 84% of homosexual students report being verbally harassed (name calling, threats, etc.) because of their sexual orientation. And 80% of gay and bisexual youth report severe problems with cognitive, social or emotional isolation. What is needed to help improve their situation? The school system exists to educate and prepare young people for place in adult society. If foes not provide gay pupils with the information they need to have safe sexual relationship, and allows other pupils to leave school with prejudice and a lack of understanding of gay issues, then the school system has failed some education providers have taken s steps to ensure young people receive sexual health education that contains a component for gay pupils. There are also an increasing number of schools that have specific policies for tackling homophobic bullying and discrimination. In such an environment, gay and lesbian teachers are more able to come out to students and staff, acting as vital role models for young people There are still problem for homosexual students in school, but we have to look at the things that are changing. For example media is becoming more aware and open to the problem and represented homosexuality in teenagers as a good thing. In many of the big cities they are being more opened to homosexuality, many school are even bringing more information about sexuality. More school are hiring homosexual teachers to show there more open minded state. These are small steps to achieve more freedom for homosexual teenagers in school and in society, but still remember that they are many who are suffering and we can not stop until this problem is ended.

Mouth Cancer essays

Mouth Cancer essays The choice that I have chosen to write about for this report is mouth cancer. I am personally interested in this type of cancer because of the fact that I play baseball. If you have ever seen a baseball game on television you would have somewhat of an idea that major leaguers chew tobacco quit often so I was interested in the risks that they put them selves into. I also wanted to know the other risks of getting mouth cancer because my dad had just recently had gum surgery because his dentist had recommended it so he could reduce his chances of getting cancer. Also I have many friends who chose to use chewing tobacco, and that smoke so I just was wondering how many years it could be before they started to show signs of cancer. There can be many different causes of mouth cancer but one the most original ways for someone to get the cancer is to use tobacco. Aetiological factors (acting on a genetically susceptible individual) include tobacco use (75% of people with oral cancer smoke), betel use (bidi leaf, and often tobacco, plus spices, slaked lime, and areca nut), alcohol consumption, a diet poor in fresh fruit and vegetables, infective agents, immune deficiency, and (in the case of lip carcinoma) exposure to sunlight (Porter, 2000). The exact cause of mouth cancer is not yet known. Smoking and other uses of tobacco are those are that are most commonly distinguished with mouth cancer. Heavy alcohol use is another factor that can also cause mouth cancer. Another factor that can also cause mouth cancer is poor dental hygiene. Many oral cancers begin as leukoplakia or mouth ulcers. Oral cancer accounts for about 8% of all malignant growths. Men are affected twice as often as women, particularly men over 40 years old are (website). Other causes of mouth cancer can include tertiary syphilis, discoid lupus erythematosus, dyskeratosis congenital, and Plummer-Vinson syndrome (Porter, 2000). There are many factors that you can lo...

Variables used in Spatial and Regional models The WritePass Journal

Variables used in Spatial and Regional models Introduction Variables used in Spatial and Regional models IntroductionBibliographyRelated Introduction In Geography scale principally concerns space. Scale relates to other ideas, only can we understand scale when it is applied in respect to the totality of the landscape element. In this thesis, I plan to examine how spatial scale problems have been manipulated and resolved. I will assess examples of variables used in spatial and regional models at various scales and the methodological dilemmas within spatial analysis and solutions to this. I will also scrutinize the way in which we select scales and some of the trade offs needed in the future to consider continental and global scales. Finally, I argue for a better amalgamation of space and spatial scales into hierarchy supposition. Addressing scale unswervingly, the most frequent form is cartographic scale. Watson (1978) argues; â€Å" scale is a ‘geographic’ variable almost as sacred as distance† and â€Å"well developed policy has been created to balance the scale versus resolution-information content of a map† (Board 1967). Maps depict the earth’s surface; this raises the concern of how flat maps disfigure spatial relations on the earth’s surface. In turn, the use of ‘analysis’ scale, includes the use of units to measure phenomena, for data analysis and mapping. Essentially this being the scale for observing and acknowledging geographic phenomena. We can argue that this form of ‘occurrence’ scale is the ‘true’ scale of geography, analysing how geographic processes function across the World. It is accepted that a variety of scales of geographic phenomena interrelate; local economies are enclosed with regional economies and rivers are contained within larger hydrological systems for example. Therefore, conceptualizing such hierarchies can be complex for geographers, the traditional method of focusing on a single scale largely continues. Generalization has arisen as a result. This is the view that the world that surrounds us can never be studied or modelled, or represented in all of its full detail and complexity. Perceptibly, scale is of great importance due its consequences for the degree to which geographic ideas are generalized. Generalization is in effect a process of simplification; it includes aspects of collection and development of characteristics and evidence that interest us as geographers. It demonstrates the way in which a study can represent smaller pieces of earth; it tends to be more focused on fine geographic details. For example, if we were to consider the way in which a large scale map will demonstrate more features of the earth’s surface in greater detail than a small-scale map. Geography has often been held under disparagement due to its â€Å"wide nature of topics and deviating points of view† (Hart 1982). Harvey argues that â€Å"Inconvenience arising from the search for causality between human and physical environment ideas and the predictions of spatial patterns† are often discussed (Harvey 1969.) However, Clarke argues that there is a â€Å"widespread connection in terms of the spatial point of view, which cements the study of geography† (Clarke et al 1987). Examples of spatial variables include; â€Å"area, direction, range distance, spatial geometries and patterns, isolation, diffusion, spatial connectivity, spatial associations and scale† (Abler et al. 1971). Mitchelson has described these variables as â€Å"geographic primitives† (Mitchelson, unpublished). Geographical spatial thinking tends to oscillate between two poles as there is no clearly defined geographical or landscape space this had let to the emergence of the concepts of absolute and relative space. The shaping of geographical space is under the influence of both these poles. Harvey argues that absolute space is a synonym of emptiness, Kant supports this by saying that â€Å"space may exist for its own sake independent of matter. Space just ‘is’ and should be viewed as a ‘container for elements of the earth’s surface† (Harvey 1969).   In other words, the job of Geography is to fill this ‘container’ with information and ideas. This sums up the Euclidian point of view of absolute scale, usually based on a defined grid system, common in conventional cartography, remote sensing and the mapping sciences. It is relatively easy to view ‘sub containers’ within a ‘container’ and to devise suitable categorization schemes. For example a CBD area may have several districts, areas, or neighbourhoods, all of which may show ever-smaller areal units. With the idea of absolute space, the conception of spatial hierarchies is comparatively uncomplicated. The relativistic point of view, involves two considerations. Initially, space exists only with reference to spatial elements and processes. The ‘relevant’ space is clear by spatial processes taking place, e.g. migration and commuting patterns, dispersion of pollutants and even the diffusion of ideas and information. Scales and regions are defined relatively by the relationship between or amongst spatial patterns forms and functions, processes and rates. This means space is defined in non-Euclidean terms, even â€Å"distance may be relative† (Harvey 1969). Two areas of landscape separated by a barrier may be close in absolute space but very distant in relative space when time, rates, and interactions are considered. Hence, how a functional spatial process region is difficult to map in terms of absolute space. Calls for a more broad-scale study are evident with demand for advanced techniques and applications of geographic information systems (GIS). Broad scale problems can realistically be solved by these techniques, which use absolute space almost exclusively. It has been argued that most modern work in geography involves a â€Å"relative view of space† (Harvey 1969; Abler et al. 1971) due to the spatial processes and mechanisms involved. There have been a lot of recent debates as to the â€Å"appropriate scale of analysis for various processes† (Nir 1987). However, there is an agreement between geographic scholars that changes in scale change the important relevant variables. Furthermore, Mitchelson argues that the â€Å"value of a phenomenon at a particular place is usually driven by causal processes which operate at differing scales† (Mitchelson, unpublished). We can analyse the study of human migration as an example. Often included are variables in relation to labour demand, investment and business climate, and income, i.e. these are group and structural contextual variables. In comparison, intra-urban migration models often involve the age, education and income of individuals. Similarly, looking at how water supply networks are planned in third-world countries, investigations at a national scale often involve urban and regional water demands. In contrast, at a village scale, walking time and the distance to a spout may be unsurpassed concerns. This leads on to behavioural geography, examining the use of space by individuals and the timing of this use. This approach has been termed â€Å"activity space and time space geography† (Carlstein and Thrift 1978). The most routine human activities involve the shortest spaces and time. This is reflected by the view that the â€Å"most frequent movements are of the shortest distance and demonstrate effort-minimization principles† (Zipf 1949). Thus how different spatial activities have radically different time and space scales. Spatial analysis has shown methodological problems. Tobler stated the problem of spatial correlation in his first law of geography: â€Å"near things are more related than distant things† (Tobler, 1969). This is the idea that every spatial element may be correlated. Without Tobler’s idea it could be said that the surface of the earth would appear entirely random. Spatial autocorrelation is the basis for the recognition of spatial variability e.g. ground versus water, field versus woodland, high density versus low density etc. Harvey has further argued that it is often â€Å"useful to search for the level of resolution which maximizes the spatial variability of a phenomenon†. (Harvey 1969). It has also been argued that there is inference of spatial process from spatial form and that most processes are discovered under spatial form, however, empirical results are usually scale specific. In other words â€Å"patterns which appear to be ordered at one scale may appe ar random at other scales† (Miller 1978). However, recently, rules have been developed for optimal spatial sampling and data grouping to reduce the loss of such inference, this can be found in work by Clark and Avery 1976. Watson (1978) argues that a solution to poor spatial data coverage is the â€Å"development of a model of spatial relationships that couples to hierarchical levels†. In other words, not a lot of studies in geography have combined macrospatial and mircospatial levels of analysis because of the incredibly large amount of data needed, producing very complex models. However, we already have many of the data rich variables at near global scales which can then in turn be used as the driving variables in predicting spatial patterns at much broader scales. It may be appropriate to find the appropriate constraints for the spatial hierarchies of concern in order to improve the spatial modelling aspect of Geography. Steyn argues that â€Å"disciplines concerned primarily with processes such as meteorology are able to switch scales very easily† (Steyn, 1981). In comparison, disciplines dealing with phenomenon are often restricted by the size of the actual phenomenon. For example, larger regions tend to incorporate more potential interactions and have a greater degree of centrality bias. In conclusion, the thesis reviews space and time scales from a geographers point of view. It can be found that spatial phenomena comes in a vast variety of different size classes, much work has been conducted across many orders of spatial magnitude. Despite many appeals for multiscaler research e.g. Abler 1987; Miller 1970; and Stone 1968. This is practiced very little, despite evidence that good multiscale work apparently meets data handling thresholds accurately and quickly. As various disciplines under what can be called the umbrella of environmental sciences begin to incorporate diverse spatial dimensions into their research agendas, problems with spatial scale are expected to be encountered. Many of these problems have already been recognized if not solved. Even so, it is still worth noting Clarke’s (1985) admonition, â€Å"No simple rules can automatically select the ‘proper’ scale; for attention.† Essentially, scale is the foundations upon which the home of Geography is built upon. Its various rooms are the arguments and theories behind scale, the floors are the advancements into hierarchical theory. The roof is the final piece solving the spatial dimension scale that places a shelter over Geographers heads and covers us from the elements of inferences in scale. Bibliography Abler, R.F. 1987. What shall we say? To whom shall we speak? Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. Abler, R.F., Adams, J. and Gould, P. 1971. Spatial organization: the geographer’s view of the world. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey. Board, C. 1967. Maps as models. In Models in Geography. pp. 671-726. Methuen and Co., Ltd., London. Carlstein, T. and Thrift, N. 1978. Afterword: towards a time-space structured approach to society and the environment. in Human Activity and Time Geography. pp. 225-263. Clarke, M.J., Gregory, K.J. and Gurnell, A.M. 1987. Introduction: change and continuity in physical geography. In Horizons in Physical Geography. pp. 1-5. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey. Clarke, W.A.V. and Avery, K.L. 1976. The effects of data aggregation in statistical analysis. Geogr. Harvey, D. 1969. Explanation in Geography. St Martin’s Press, New York. Hart, J.F. 1982. The highest form of the geographer’s art. Ann Assoc. Am. Geogr. 72: 1-29. Miler, D.H. 1978. The factor of scale: ecosystem, landscape mosaic and region. In Sourcebook on the Environment. pp. 63-88. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Miller, D.H. 1978. The factor of scale: ecosystem, landscape mosaic and region. In Sourcebook on the Environment. pp. 63-88. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Mitchelson, R.L. Concerns About Scale, unpublished. Nir, D. 1987. Regional geography considered from the systems approach. Geoforum 18(2): 187-202. Steyn, D.G. 1981. On scales in meteorology and climatology. Clim. Bull. 39: 1-8. Stone, K.H. 1968. Scale, Scale, Scale. Econ. Geogr. 44:94. Tobler, W.R. 1969. Geographical filters and their inverses. Geogr.1:234-253. Watson, M.K. 1978. The scale problem in human geography. Geogr. Ann. 60B: 36-47. Zipf, G.K. 1949. Human behaviour and the principle of least effort. Addison-Wesley Press, Camrbdige.

Past Perfect Progressive Definition and Examples

Past Perfect Progressive Definition and Examples A verb construction (made up of had been a present participle) that points to an activity or situation that was ongoing in the past. Also known as past perfect continuous. Also see: AspectPast PerfectProgressive AspectPast Progressive Examples and Observations He knew that she had been dreaming that night and he knew what her dreams were about.(W. Somerset Maugham, Christmas Holiday, 1939)For an hour the old man had been seeing black spots before his eyes and the sweat salted his eyes and salted the cut over his eye and on his forehead.(Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea, 1952)If she had been pretending, she would have hidden for a reasonable time before coming out and telling her story.(C.S. Lewis, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, 1950)I felt like an extraordinary hero. I was only five or six and I had the whole of life in my hands. Even if I had been driving the carriage of the sun I could not have felt any better.(Dario Fo)The jaws fell, the ears drooped more limply. He had been looking like a dead fish. He now looked like a deader fish, one of last years, cast up on some lonely beach and left there at the mercy of the wind and tides.(P.G. Wodehouse, Right Ho, Jeeves, 1934)I was sixteen years old and more, and I had not yet done anything the Grandfathers wanted me to do, but they had been helping me.(John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 1932) Mr. Churchill was better than could be expected; and their first removal, on the departure of the funeral for Yorkshire, was to be to the house of a very old friend in Windsor, to whom Mr. Churchill had been promising a visit the last ten years.(Jane Austen, Emma)The past perfect progressive (had been -ing) tells us about the length of the action and the specific point when it ended. It occurs frequently with since or for to specify the duration of the action.(Ann Raimes, Exploring Through Writing. Cambridge University Press, 1998) Also Known As: past perfect continuous